Floriography
Floriography: The Victorian Language of Flowers
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Writing for Petal Republic since 2021 · 70 articles
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Floriography, Flower meanings, Floral design
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Flowers have carried coded messages for centuries. This guide explains the Victorian language of flowers, including the Ottoman story often told about its origins and the meanings attached to specific blooms and colors.
In Short
Floriography is a coded communication where each flower and color holds symbolic meaning. It was popular in the Victorian era, and givers used it to send messages without saying a word.
- The European tradition is often traced to selam, a rhyming-object game in the Ottoman harem, but scholars now see that origin as largely a misreading.
- The first book devoted entirely to floriography, Le langage des Fleurs, was published in France around 1819.
More Takeaways
- Some later accounts say that in Victorian England, how a bouquet was held could signal yes or no.
- A flower's meaning shifts with its color: red carnations mean romantic love, yellow ones rejection.
The Ottoman Empire
For millennia, people have assigned meaning to flowers. Across diverse cultures in Europe, Asia, and Africa, some form of floriography — or the use of flowers to communicate specific meanings — has been in play for thousands of years.
From the flower references in the Christian bible to the teachings of Buddha, Chinese medicine to Japanese folklore, flowers have long held special meaning across cultures and time. But the European language of flowers is often traced to the Ottoman Empire, though Cornell University Library calls that origin a misattribution.
Here, a tradition known as selam was a harem game of rhyming objects that used many more items than flowers and worked more as a memory aid for lines of poetry. It was a great way to communicate without the need for the written word, especially since many could not read or write at the time.
Selam spread to Europe after Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's husband was appointed ambassador to Constantinople in 1716, and she wrote about selam in her letters from Turkey, which were published in 1763, after her death. In a series of letters, she wrote of the customs of her new home. In describing selam, Wortley wrote:
“There is no color, no flower, no weed, no fruit, herb, pebble, or feather, that has not a verse belonging to it; and you may quarrel, reproach, or send letters of passion, friendship, or civility, or even of news, without ever inking your fingers.”
Botany was a growing field at the time, and interest in the language of flowers spread. Floriography was especially popular among middle-class women, who were afforded few societally approved ways to express their feelings.
Victorian Times
In France, the obsession with using flowers to send coded messages took off in the early 1800s. Around 1819, Le langage des Fleurs by Madame Charlotte de la Tour was published, not the first book on the subject but the first devoted entirely to floriography. Hundreds of floral meaning dictionaries and guides soon followed.
The trend spread across Europe, and floriography grew especially popular in Victorian-era England. In this famously buttoned-down (some say repressed) era, many sentiments could never be expressed directly in “polite” society. The language of flowers became a way for the middle class to send coded, secret messages.
For instance, young people in love couldn’t openly express their feelings. Instead, gifts of flowers in bouquets known as tussiemussies or nosegays allowed them to communicate more openly than society would allow. Of course, the messages weren’t always about love and romance.
Flowers also have negative or ambiguous meanings, from rejection to friendship, grief to devotion, luck to hatred. Mixing flowers was a way to send complicated messages.
Color mattered, as well. Take, for instance, the many meanings portrayed by a carnation; a red carnation stands for romantic love and affection, while a pink carnation symbolizes motherly love. White carnations wished someone good luck and prosperity, while yellow carnations conveyed rejection and disappointment.
According to some later accounts, when accepting a floral gift that asked a question, reaching out with the right hand indicated a “yes” answer. The left hand meant “no.” If the recipient held the bouquet upside down, that signified rejection.
According to later accounts, even where the flowers were worn had meaning. Some meanings varied between books. If a would-be suitor sent a nosegay to a woman and she held it in the center of her bodice, that would be a sign that she only wanted friendship. If she held the flowers over her heart, the love was requited.
Floriography & Religion
Floriography plays a role in many religious traditions. Certain flowers and plants had meaning to early Christians; flowers appear in the Old Testament, as in the Song of Solomon, which opens with the speaker as the rose of Sharon and the lily of the valleys.
In addition, religious implications are attached to flowers, such as:
- Anemone: the Virgin Mary’s sorrow at Christ’s crucifixion
- Columbine: the victory of life over death
- Lily: saints’ chastity, humility, and purity
- Red or white rose: symbol of the Virgin Mary
- White tulips: the Holy Spirit and forgiveness
Buddhism contains references to flowers. The lotus is a symbol of enlightenment and rebirth. Flowers, including roses, frangipani, orchids, and white and yellow marigolds, are suitable temple decorations and offerings.
Flowers play an important role for Hindus. The prayer rite of puja often involves offering flowers to the gods. For instance, the lotus symbolizes purity, wealth, and good fortune, while marigold flowers symbolize love.
Eastern Cultures
Flowers have long played symbolic roles in ancient Chinese folklore and medicine. Red peonies symbolize fame and wealth, while chrysanthemums symbolize the message of long life.
Japan has its own tradition of flower meanings, hanakotoba.
Art and Literature
The works of Shakespeare include multiple flower references. In Hamlet, Ophelia carries a bouquet of rosemary, pansies, fennel, rue, columbines, and daisies, which carry connotations of memory, thoughts, strength, disdain, folly, and innocence. Sir John Everett Millais’ 1851–2 painting Ophelia shows these flowers.
Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre uses flowers to portray a message of hope. As the protagonist’s time at a terrible school comes to an end, she sees crocuses (youth and gladness) — and snowdrops (hope) growing. The poet Emily Dickinson, who kept a herbarium, often worked flower meanings into her poems and the bouquets she sent, and for her, jasmine meant passion.
John Singer Sargent included flowers in many works during the same era, including Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose. The works of Dante Gabriel Rossetti also featured flowers, such as Sancta Lilias and Monna Pomona.
Is Floriography Still Used Today?
Today, the meanings behind many flowers have evolved, while some have remained. The ability to use floriography to send heartfelt messages still remains strong, though some messages have become more universal in meaning. For instance, carnations are a standard for Mother’s Day flowers, while red roses are popular for Valentine’s Day.
The hand someone accepts a floral gift with or how they hold the bouquet doesn’t hold the meaning it did in the Victorian age.
By Color
Color Symbolism in Floriography
- RedIn Western cultures, red flowers often symbolize romantic love, affection, and passion; the color is also often connected to power and vigor.
- PurplePurple flowers often symbolize success, admiration, and even royalty.
- WhiteWhite flower meanings are often connected to purity, innocence, and honesty in Western societies.
- PinkPink flowers send a message of affection, sweetness, and warmth.
- BlueOne of the rarest flower colors, blue flowers symbolize feelings of peace, calm, and tranquility.
- YellowIn Western cultures, yellow flowers symbolize friendship, cheer, and good luck wishes.
- OrangeBright orange flowers often stand for enthusiasm and excitement.
- GreenAnother relatively rare flower color, green flowers, often signify rebirth, renewal, and fresh starts.
| Color | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Red | In Western cultures, red flowers often symbolize romantic love, affection, and passion; the color is also often connected to power and vigor. |
| Purple | Purple flowers often symbolize success, admiration, and even royalty. |
| White | White flower meanings are often connected to purity, innocence, and honesty in Western societies. |
| Pink | Pink flowers send a message of affection, sweetness, and warmth. |
| Blue | One of the rarest flower colors, blue flowers symbolize feelings of peace, calm, and tranquility. |
| Yellow | In Western cultures, yellow flowers symbolize friendship, cheer, and good luck wishes. |
| Orange | Bright orange flowers often stand for enthusiasm and excitement. |
| Green | Another relatively rare flower color, green flowers, often signify rebirth, renewal, and fresh starts. |
Red
In Western cultures, red flowers often symbolize romantic love, affection, and passion; the color is also often connected to power and vigor.
Purple
Purple flowers often symbolize success, admiration, and even royalty. They may also signify elegance and distinction, as well as honor.
White
White flower meanings are often connected to purity, innocence, and honesty in Western societies. It’s commonplace to feature white flowers at weddings and to celebrate a birth. However, in Chinese culture, white is associated with death and mourning and is often found in sympathy bouquets.
Pink
Pink flowers send a message of affection, sweetness, and warmth. They’re a great choice to indicate friendship, love, and gratitude. In Thailand, pink is associated with trust, while in China, pink flowers symbolize good fortune.
Blue
One of the rarest flower colors, blue flowers symbolize feelings of peace, calm, and tranquility. When given in a bouquet, they can symbolize trust, openness, intimacy, and even safety. Across cultures, the like of blue roses may also be connected to mystery and expressions of sympathy.
Yellow
In Western cultures, yellow flowers symbolize friendship, cheer, and good luck wishes. They’re often included in congratulations and thank you bouquets. In other parts of the world, yellow may be associated with honoring the dead, sacredness, beauty, abundance, and royalty. But to the Victorians, some yellow flowers – like yellow roses or calendula — meant jealousy.
Orange
Bright orange flowers often stand for enthusiasm and excitement. They’re commonly included in floral gifts that offer congratulations or good cheer and offer messages of warmth and happiness. Some orange flowers had negative connotations in the Victorian era, such as hatred. Today, though, orange flowers symbolize an optimistic message.
Green
Another relatively rare flower color, green flowers, often signify rebirth, renewal, and fresh starts. They may also have the connotation of good health, prosperity, luck, and youthfulness. For instance, green flowers like bells of Ireland symbolize good luck, while cymbidium orchids symbolize health and prosperity.
Flower Types and Their Meanings
The Best Flowers for Romance
When it comes to romance, no flower says it more clearly than roses, red roses, to be exact. The red rose is still the classic romance flower today, and in the Victorian dictionaries it meant beauty or love. A deep red rose could also signal bashful shame.
The red camellia is not a romantic message in the Victorian dictionaries. There it meant unpretending excellence, while the white camellia meant perfected loveliness.
Red peonies are often sold as romantic flowers, but the Victorian dictionaries gave the peony anger or shame. A peony was a frown, not a declaration of love.
Red tulips also send a romantic (and passionate) message. To the Victorians, a red tulip was a declaration of love.
The same goes for red carnations. In Greenaway’s Language of Flowers, the deep red carnation says “Alas! for my poor heart,” and the striped carnation means refusal.
Looking for something a bit different? Tell someone you desire them by sending a bouquet of jonquils. These spring bloomers send a message of longing and desire, as well as the message that you want someone to love you.
Another out-of-the-box floral gift for romance is the yellow iris. These unusual flowers symbolize flame, not passion, in the Victorian dictionaries. Their delicate color and shape let that special someone know that you find them beautiful and desirable.
Further reading: see our in-depth guide to the best types of flowers to gift to girlfriends.
The Best Flowers for Friendship
When you want to let a friend know you’re thinking of them, yellow roses are a great choice today, though the Victorians read them as infidelity or jealousy. Add in some white roses, which the Victorian dictionaries read as silence or “I am worthy of you.”
Chrysanthemums make another excellent friendship gift. In the Victorian dictionaries, a red chrysanthemum said “I love,” a white one “truth,” and a yellow one “slighted love.” Just be aware that white chrysanthemums are a symbol of mourning in Chinese culture.
The iris meant “message” in all five Victorian dictionaries, and Wirt’s Flora’s Dictionary gave it as “I have a message for you.” It suits a bouquet that carries a note.
Sweet freesia flowers symbolize trust and friendship in floriography. These fragrant purple flowers also add a fantastic aroma to any bouquet.
Sunflowers are perfect to gift to a friend. They are cheerful and bright, but in the Victorian dictionaries only the dwarf sunflower meant adoration, while the sunflower itself could mean false riches.
If your friend is far away, send them some zinnia. To the Victorians, these colorful blooms meant that you were thinking about an absent friend.
Ivy means friendship, with the added message of affection.
The Best Flowers for Sympathy
When you want to let someone know you’re thinking of them in their time of need, pink roses symbolize a thoughtful, caring message. Coral roses are another appropriate choice. Both carry the symbolism of sympathy.
Geraniums in dark colors are also appropriate choices for sympathy floral gifts. To the Victorians, these blossoms conveyed a message of sadness.
Similarly, deep crimson roses symbolize mourning. Avoid brighter red roses, and choose only dark roses for this purpose.
Other flowers associated with sympathy include lemon balm. Though the small white flowers are inconspicuous, the herb lends a fresh, pleasing scent to bouquets.
Thrift symbolizes sympathy in floriography. These purple-pink flowers may be hard to find, but they add a beautiful color and texture to any sympathy bouquet.
In many Asian cultures, white chrysanthemums are associated with death, mourning, and grief. In some European cultures, the white mum is used at funerals and services for the deceased.
Willow branches also symbolize sadness and can be used to fill in bouquets. This may be due to an association with weeping willows. Finally, flowers that symbolize remembrance are good choices for sympathy. These include rosemary, forget-me-nots, statice, and poppies.
Further reading: Discover the best types of flowers for get well gestures.
The Best Flowers for Celebration
Flowers are the perfect way to celebrate an accomplishment or a milestone, such as graduation or a birthday.
A gift of hollyhocks stands for fruitfulness and ambition. White hollyhocks have the additional meaning of female ambition.
Several orange flowers are associated with wishes of prosperity. These are great choices to add to a congratulations bouquet and include tiger lilies and alstroemeria.
Yellow poppies symbolize success. These cheerful flowers are the perfect way to say congratulations.
Heather is a good choice when celebrating a new arrival. This European native was a good luck charm during the Victorian era. White heather has the additional meaning of protection and wishes that come true.
The Best Flowers for Forgiveness
Do you need to say “I’m sorry”? In the Victorian language of flowers, red or pink anemones symbolized feeling forsaken, so they are a poor choice for an apology. In hanakotoba floriography, white anemones signify sincerity, and these delicate blooms let someone know that you’re genuinely sorry.
White and blue orchids also stand for sincerity. These stunning flowers show you’re telling the truth when you offer an apology.
In the Victorian era, a nosegay of purple hyacinths meant “Please forgive me.” These spring blossoms have the additional message of sorry attached and say that you’re feeling sorrowful over the mistake you made.
Yarrow symbolizes a cure for heartache. With their distinctive fragrance, these cheerful flowers are a welcome addition to any “I’m sorry” gift.
Some dictionaries give the peony shame or bashfulness, as in Greenaway’s Language of Flowers, while others give anger, as in Wirt’s Flora’s Dictionary and Dumont’s The Floral Offering. Before sending peonies as an apology, check which dictionary the recipient uses.
Lily of the valley meant “return of happiness” in the Victorian dictionaries, not humility or tears. It is a hopeful flower to send after an apology has been accepted.
The Best Flowers for Thanks & Gratitude
The hydrangea was a poor thank-you in the Victorian books, where it meant a boaster or heartlessness, and the hortensia meant “you are cold.”
Dark pink roses and peach roses symbolize gratitude, as well. In floriography, a gift of deep pink or peach roses means thankfulness. These fragrant favorites are a perfect way to express your gratitude to someone you care about, especially when you put the two colors together in a lovely bouquet.
The fragrant sweet pea meant “departure” and “delicate pleasures,” which suits a gift after a visit. These aromatic flowers are an excellent choice for a hostess gift or to give after you’ve been a guest at someone’s home.
A cheerful bouquet of orange tulips and yellow tulips is a modern choice, but the Victorian dictionaries gave the yellow tulip “hopeless love” and no meaning for an orange tulip.
Dahlias come in various colors and impart a message of strength and positivity. Dahlias are a great choice when you need to express gratitude to a mentor, parent, or someone in a leadership position.
30 Popular Flowers in Floriography and Their Symbolism
Do the Victorian Flower Dictionaries Agree?
The five books we read in full agree on some of the 30 flowers and contradict each other on others. Three are American (Elizabeth Washington Wirt's Flora's Dictionary, 1831, Catharine H. Waterman's Flora's Lexicon, 1840, and Henrietta Dumont's The Floral Offering, 1851) and two are British (Robert Tyas's The Sentiment of Flowers, 1841, and Kate Greenaway's Language of Flowers, 1884). Daisy means innocence in every book, but peony is anger in Wirt and Dumont and shame and bashfulness in Greenaway, and daffodil runs from chivalry to self-love to regard depending on which book you open. Some meanings repeated on modern websites, such as faith, wisdom, and valor for iris or prosperity and a happy marriage for peony, appear in none of the five.
Rose (red)
Split- “Beauty”
- “love”
Lily
Mostly agree- “Purity,” with modesty or sweetness
- “majesty”
Forget-me-not
Agree- “Forget me not”Greenaway adds “true love”
Wirt gives the name to the pansy.
Chrysanthemum
Mostly agree- Red or rose “I love,” white “truth,” yellow “slighted love”
- “cheerfulness”
Not in Tyas or Dumont.
Violet
Agree- “Modesty”Wirt gives it to the white violet and “love” to the blue
Daisy
Agree- “Innocence”
Carnation
Mostly agree- Yellow “disdain”
- “woman’s love”
- Deep red “alas! for my poor heart” and striped “refusal”
Iris
Agree- “Message”Wirt: “I have a message for you”
Tulip
Agree- Red “declaration of love”
- Yellow “hopeless love”
- Variegated “beautiful eyes”
Gardenia (cape jasmine)
Rarely listed- “Transport. Ecstasy”
- “transport of joy” and “I’m too happy”
Not in the other three.
Peony
Split- “Anger”
- “shame, bashfulness”
Not in Waterman or Tyas.
Hydrangea
Split- “A boaster”Greenaway adds “heartlessness”
- As hortensia, “you are cold”
Lilac
Agree- “First emotions of love”
- White lilac “youth”
- “youthful innocence”
Camellia
Disagree- “Pity”
- “my destiny is in your hands”
- “modest merit”
- Red “unpretending excellence,” white “perfected loveliness”
Orange blossom
Agree- “Chastity”
- “your purity equals your loveliness”
Poppy
Agree- “Consolation”Greenaway for the red poppy
- White “my bane, my antidote”
Orchid
Mostly agree- “Error,” from the bee orchis
- “a belle”
Jasmine
Agree- “Amiability”Waterman for the white
- Yellow “grace and elegance”
Sunflower
Disagree- “False riches”
- “lofty and pure thoughts”
- Dwarf “your devout adorer”
- “adoration”
Daffodil
Disagree- “Chivalry”
- “self-love”
- “regard”
Tyas lists only the jonquil and narcissus.
Amaranth
Agree- “Immortality”Greenaway adds “unfading love”
Anemone
Mostly agree- “Forsaken”
- “expectation”
Buttercup
Mostly agree- “Ingratitude”
- “riches”
Clematis
Mostly agree- “Artifice”
- “mental beauty”
- As virgin’s bower, “filial love”
Foxglove
Disagree- “Stateliness”
- “insincerity”
Not in the other three.
Honeysuckle
Mostly agree- “Bonds of love”
- “generous and devoted affection”
- “generous and devoted love”For the wild honeysuckle
Morning glory
Disagree- “Affectation”
- As convolvulus, “uncertainty”
- “bonds”
Primrose
Mostly agree- “Early youth”
- “childhood”
Wirt lists only the evening primrose.
Sweet pea
Agree- “Departure”Greenaway also gives “delicate pleasures”
Not in Tyas or Dumont.
Wisteria
Rarely listedIn none of the five.
No flower matches.
| Flower | What the books say | Do they agree? |
|---|---|---|
| Rose (red) | “Beauty” (Wirt, Waterman, Tyas); “love” (Dumont, Greenaway) | Split |
| Lily | “Purity,” with modesty or sweetness (Wirt, Waterman, Tyas, Greenaway); “majesty” (Dumont) | Mostly |
| Forget-me-not | “Forget me not” (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway, which adds “true love”); Wirt gives the name to the pansy | Yes |
| Chrysanthemum | Red or rose “I love,” white “truth,” yellow “slighted love” (Wirt, Greenaway); “cheerfulness” (Waterman); not in Tyas or Dumont | Mostly |
| Violet | “Modesty” (all five; Wirt gives it to the white violet and “love” to the blue) | Yes |
| Daisy | “Innocence” (all five) | Yes |
| Carnation | Yellow “disdain” (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway); “woman’s love” (Wirt); deep red “alas! for my poor heart” and striped “refusal” (Greenaway) | Mostly |
| Iris | “Message” (all five; Wirt: “I have a message for you”) | Yes |
| Tulip | Red “declaration of love” (all five); yellow “hopeless love” (Wirt, Greenaway); variegated “beautiful eyes” (Greenaway) | Yes |
| Gardenia (cape jasmine) | “Transport. Ecstasy” (Wirt); “transport of joy” and “I’m too happy” (Greenaway); not in the other three | Only two list it |
| Peony | “Anger” (Wirt, Dumont); “shame, bashfulness” (Greenaway); not in Waterman or Tyas | Split |
| Hydrangea | “A boaster” (Wirt, Waterman, Greenaway, which adds “heartlessness”); as hortensia, “you are cold” (Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway) | Split |
| Lilac | “First emotions of love” (all five); white lilac “youth” (Wirt, Tyas, Dumont) or “youthful innocence” (Greenaway) | Yes |
| Camellia | “Pity” (Wirt); “my destiny is in your hands” (Waterman); “modest merit” (Dumont); red “unpretending excellence,” white “perfected loveliness” (Greenaway) | No |
| Orange blossom | “Chastity” (Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway); “your purity equals your loveliness” (Wirt, Greenaway) | Yes |
| Poppy | “Consolation” (all five; Greenaway for the red poppy); white “my bane, my antidote” (Wirt, Dumont, Greenaway) | Yes |
| Orchid | “Error,” from the bee orchis (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont); “a belle” (Greenaway) | Mostly |
| Jasmine | “Amiability” (all five; Wirt and Waterman for the white); yellow “grace and elegance” (Wirt, Greenaway) | Yes |
| Sunflower | “False riches” (Tyas, Dumont); “lofty and pure thoughts” (Waterman); dwarf “your devout adorer” (Wirt) or “adoration” (Greenaway) | No |
| Daffodil | “Chivalry” (Wirt, Waterman); “self-love” (Dumont); “regard” (Greenaway); Tyas lists only the jonquil and narcissus | No |
| Amaranth | “Immortality” (all five; Greenaway adds “unfading love”) | Yes |
| Anemone | “Forsaken” (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway); “expectation” (Wirt) | Mostly |
| Buttercup | “Ingratitude” (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont, Greenaway); “riches” (Wirt) | Mostly |
| Clematis | “Artifice” (Waterman, Tyas, Dumont); “mental beauty” (Greenaway); as virgin’s bower, “filial love” (Wirt, Greenaway) | Mostly |
| Foxglove | “Stateliness” (Waterman); “insincerity” (Greenaway); not in the other three | No |
| Honeysuckle | “Bonds of love” (Waterman, Tyas); “generous and devoted affection” (Dumont, Greenaway) or “generous and devoted love” (Wirt, for the wild honeysuckle) | Mostly |
| Morning glory | “Affectation” (Greenaway); as convolvulus, “uncertainty” (Wirt, Waterman) or “bonds” (Greenaway) | No |
| Primrose | “Early youth” (Waterman, Tyas, Greenaway); “childhood” (Dumont); Wirt lists only the evening primrose | Mostly |
| Sweet pea | “Departure” (Wirt, Waterman, Greenaway, which also gives “delicate pleasures”); not in Tyas or Dumont | Yes |
| Wisteria | In none of the five | Not listed |
Wrap Up
No matter the message, you can communicate without speaking a word. Floriography lets you beautifully speak your mind. Whether you’re expressing gratitude or apologies, congratulations or sympathy, or simply want to let a friend or loved one know how you feel, a bouquet of beautiful flowers sends a meaningful message.
Questions and Answers
What Are the Best Books on the Language of Flowers?
Kate Greenaway's Language of Flowers (1884) is often seen as the effective end of the genre. Beverly Seaton's The Language of Flowers: A History, published by University of Virginia Press, notes that the language differs from book to book and country to country. Cornell University Library's Language of Flowers Collection holds over 170 books, most viewable online through its Written in Petals exhibit.
How Do You Make a Bouquet That Sends a Message?
Choose flowers according to a dictionary that both you and the recipient are using, and arrange them so the bouquet reads as one sentence. In Charlotte de la Tour's dictionary, garden daisy and lilac together say, “I share your sentiments about the first emotions of love.” By the mid-1800s, floriography had become a complex system of messaging that could convey a detailed message in the arrangement of a bouquet.
Sources15 sources, linked in the text
- exhibits.library.cornell.edu: history
- blog.lib.uiowa.edu: language of flowers speaks volumes
- poets.org: lady mary wortley montagu
- Lapham's Quarterly: flower your thoughts
- exhibits.library.cornell.edu: le langage des fleurs charlotte de la tour
- friendsofdalnavert.ca: tussy mussy
- Wikipedia: Plants in Christian iconography
- rhs.org.uk: flowers in shakespeare plays
- Tate: millais ophelia n01506
- standardebooks.org: chapter 9
- poets.org: victorian treasure emily dickinsons herbarium
- Tate: sargent carnation lily lily rose n01615
- Tate: rossetti sancta lilias n02440
- Tate: rossetti monna pomona n02685
- blogs.loc.gov: say with flowers
Updates and CorrectionsOct 17, 2026 · 9 corrected, 1 clarified, 3 removed
- Corrected: The European language of flowers is often traced to the Ottoman Empire, but Cornell University Library calls that origin a misattribution.
- Corrected: Selam was a harem game of rhyming objects, not only flowers, used as a memory aid for poetry.
- Corrected: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's husband became ambassador to Constantinople in 1716, and her letters were published in 1763, not in the early 1700s.
- Corrected: Charlotte de la Tour's book (about 1819) was the first devoted entirely to floriography, not the first on the subject.
- Corrected: Mother's Day began with the white carnation; we had said pink. Millais painted Ophelia in 1851–2.
- Clarified: The hand-gesture rules for accepting a bouquet come from later accounts.
- Removed: Unsupported claims: the 1600s start date, magnolias as the flower of royalty, the origin of the word puja, and Emily Dickinson's meanings other than jasmine for passion.
- Corrected: Floriography was popular with middle-class women; we had said upper-class.
- Corrected: Coral and pink roses, not yellow, suit sympathy; yellow meant jealousy to the Victorians. Red or pink anemones meant feeling forsaken, so they are a poor apology.
- Corrected: Peonies carried different meanings in different dictionaries; we had said shame for centuries.
- Removed: A housewarming section with no Victorian basis, filler, and pull quotes that repeated the text.
- Added: Sources linked at each claim and answers on the best books, whether flower dictionaries agree, and building a bouquet that sends a message.
- Corrected: The 30-flower table now shows what five 19th-century flower dictionaries say, with each book named; several meanings we had listed, such as faith and wisdom for the iris, appear in none of them.
- Removed: The answer on whether flower dictionaries agree, now covered by the table.
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